托福 托福 37 - Modern Architecture in the United States
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence can be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square [■] to insert the sentence in the passage
Even the air space within the titles served to insulate the metal from the heat of fire.
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At the end of the nineteenth century, there were basically two kinds of buildings in the United States. On one hand were the buildings produced for the wealthy or for civic purposes, which tended to echo the architecture of the past and to use traditional styles of ornamentation. On the other hand were purely utilitarian structures, such as factories and grain elevators, which employed modern materials such as steel girders and plate glass in an undisguised and unadorned manner. Such buildings, however, were viewed in a category separate from “fine” architecture, and in fact were often designed by engineers and builders rather than architects. The development of modern architecture might in large part be seen as an adaptation of this sort of functional building and its pervasive application for daily use. Indeed, in this influential book Toward a New Architecture, the Swiss architect Le Corbusier illustrated his text with photographs of American factories and grain storage silos, as well as ships, airplanes, and other industrial objects. Nonetheless, modern architects did not simply employ these new materials in a strictly practical fashion--they consciously exploited their aesthetic possibilities. For example, glass could be used to open up walls and eliminate their stone and brick masonry because large spaces could now be spanned with steel beams.

The fundamental premise of modern architecture was that the appearance of the building should exhibit the nature of its materials and forms of physical support. This often led to effects that looked odd from a traditional standpoint but that became hallmarks of modern architecture for precisely this reason. For example, in traditional architecture, stone or brick walls served a structural role, but in a steel-beam building the walls were essentially hung from the internal skeleton of steel beams, which meant that walls and corners no longer needed to be solid but could be opened up in unexpected ways. At the Fagus shoe factory in Germany, for example, German architect Walter Gropius placed glass walls in the corners, effectively breaking open the box of traditional architecture and creating a new sense of light and openness. Similarly, steel beams could be used to construct balconies that projected out from the building without any support beneath them. These dramatic balconies quickly became a signature of modern architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright. Wright’s most dramatic residence, Fallingwater, has balconies that thrust far out over a stream in a way that seems to defy gravity.

The ways in which new technology transformed architectural design are dramatically illustrated through the evolution of the high-rise office building. After ten or twelve stories, masonry construction reaches a maximum possible height, since it runs into difficulties of compression and of inadequate lateral strength to combat wind shear. Steel construction, on the other hand, can support a building of 50 or 100 stories without difficulty. Such buildings were so different from any previous form of architecture that they quickly acquired a new name--the skyscraper.

From the standpoint of real estate developers, the purpose of skyscrapers was to increase rental space in valuable urban locations. But to create usable high-rise buildings, a number of technical challenges needed to be solved. One problem was getting people to the upper floors, since after five or six stories it becomes exhausting to climb stairs. Updated and electrified versions of the freight elevator that had been introduced by Elisha Graves Otis in 1853 (several decades before skyscraper construction) solved this problem. Another issue was fire safety. The metal supporting buildings became soft when exposed to fire and collapsed relatively quickly. (They could melt at 2700 Fahrenheit, whereas major fires achieve temperatures of 3000degrees). However, when the metal is encased in fire-retardant materials, its vulnerability to fire is much decreased. In Chicago, a system was developed for surrounding the metal components with hollow tiles made from brick-like terra-cotta. Such tiles are impervious to fire. The terra-cotta tiles were used both to encase the supporting members and as flooring. A structure built with steel beams protected by terra-cotta tiles was still three times lighter than a comparably sized building that used masonry construction, so the weight of the tiles was not a problem.

19世纪末期,美国主要有两类建筑。一种是为富人或为公共目的建造的建筑物,倾向于仿制过去的建筑,并使用传统风格的装饰物。另一种纯粹是功能性建筑,比如工厂和有升降机设备的谷仓,使用现代材料如钢梁和厚玻璃板,风格朴素,基本没有装饰。但是这种建筑物,属于与观赏性建筑不同的类别,它们实际上通常是由工程师和施工人员设计的,而不由建筑师设计。现代建筑的发展可能在很大程度上可以看作是对此类功能性建筑以及对广泛日常用途的改编和适应。确实,在《走向新建筑》这本非常有影响力的书中,瑞士建筑师勒•柯布西耶阐述内容时使用了美国工厂、粮仓、船只、飞机还有其他工业物品的照片。尽管如此,现代建筑师并不是简单地利用这些物品来打造完全实用的样式,他们有意识地开发它们的美学可能性。例如,玻璃可以用来代替墙,消除石头和砖砌工程,因为广阔的空间现在可以由钢梁支撑。 现代建筑的基本前提是建筑的外形应当展示所使用材料的特性和物理支撑的形式。这通常会造成的效果是站在传统的立场上看很奇怪,但也恰恰成为了现代建筑的标志。例如,传统建筑中,石墙或砖墙是框架结构之一,而在钢梁建筑中,墙体基本上是悬挂在内部钢梁框架上,也就是说墙和角落不再需要固定,可以以出人意料的方式打开。比如,在德国Fagus鞋厂,德国建筑师沃尔特•格罗佩把玻璃墙放在各个角落,有效打破了传统建筑的限制,创造出新的光感和开放感。同样地,钢梁可以被用来建造那些从楼体延伸出来且下方没有支撑物的阳台。这些引人注目的阳台很快就成了像弗兰克•劳埃德•赖特这类现代建筑师的代表。赖特最有名的作品是跌水别墅,溪流以一种看起来好像是反重力的方式穿过阳台。 新技术改变建筑设计的方式显然可以通过高层办公大楼的演变来体现。10-12层楼是砖石结构建筑能达到的最大高度,因为面对风切变,它会陷入压缩和横向强度不足的困境。另一方面,钢结构可以毫不费力地支撑50-100层的大楼。这些大楼与之前建筑的形状如此不同,以至于它们迅速有了自己的名字——摩天大楼。 站在房地产开发商的角度来看,摩天大楼的目的是增加原本就高价的城市区域的可租赁面积。但是为了建造可用的高楼,需要解决许多技术难题。难题之一就是如何把人运送到上部楼层,因为在爬了5-6层楼后,人们会筋疲力尽。伊莱沙•格雷夫斯•奥的斯在1851年引进了现代电气化货物升降梯(在摩天大楼建设的数十年前),解决了这个难题。另一个问题是消防安全。这种由金属支撑的建筑物,遇火后会变软,然后以相对较快的速度坍塌。(它们的熔点是2700华氏度,而大火通常能达到3000度。)但是,当金属包裹在防火材料中时,火对它的伤害性会大大降低。在芝加哥,一个用于包裹金属构件的、由类似砖的赤陶土构成的空心砖系统被开发出来。这种空心砖防火,既可以用来包裹承重构件,也可以铺在地上。一个由钢梁构成并且受到赤陶土空心砖保护的建筑,比大小相当的由砖石构造的建筑物要轻上3倍,因此空心砖的重量并不是问题。

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最新提问
  • wx_6697
    觉得B C 意思一样,不知道选哪个
  • wx_5576
    这道题C为什么对,E为什么不对?
  • wx_5576
    B为什么不能选啊?
  • wx_6697
    TPO30 passage 2 Q5我选的 D,不明白为啥不对?
  • wx_6697
    鑫哥,TPO6passage3Q5 答案是给错了吗?好多人都选A
  • wx_6697
    这题也很容易选错选成了D
  • wx_6697
    这道题A为什么错了
  • 芊儿
    为什么这道题不选c??a中的variety不是应该对应文中的differentiating 吗??求解!
  • wx_1000
    这道题不选E是因为太细节了吗
  • 王金阁
    这个题为什么不选C啊。。。
  • 芊儿
    这道题的D选项不是和文中的better able to reproduce in open settings相对应么??
  • 风荨火
    有大佬解释一下这个为啥选D嘛?
  • 以沫
    请问这个D 在哪里提现?为什么D错?
  • 芊儿
    第六题 的C选择为什么不对,感觉A是明显驳斥啊...
  • wx_6697
    鑫哥,这道题D是从哪里看出来的
  • wx_6697
    这题选的A,根据是Joly’s calculations clearly supported those geologists who insisted on an age for Earth far in excess of a few million years.想问鑫哥为啥不选A
  • wx_6697
    这题我选的是C依据是into a new habitat outside of its natural range, it may adapt to the new environment and leave its enemies behind.C为啥错了呢?鑫哥
  • wx_8861
    F选项的weather-related destruction在哪里体现了呢?原文最后一段的开头Among the costs里的costs是不是打错了?应该是coast?
  • wx_6697
    求问这道题B为啥不选,原文依据:viable seeds of pioneer species can be found in large numbers on some forest floors.
  • 与托福的斗争史
    与托福的斗争史 去解答 去解答
    这题为什么选C?
  • 小雨淅沥哗啦的下
    小雨淅沥哗啦的下 去解答 去解答
    B哪里错了
  • 小雨淅沥哗啦的下
    小雨淅沥哗啦的下 去解答 去解答
    B为啥不对
  • 李浩然
    B选项错误,是因为残缺么?
  • wx_100
    请问在做题的时候如何排除c呢。看了答案,感觉是该选a的,但是当时做题脑子一热,就特别钟爱c,也没看其他选项。。求敲醒。。
  • wx xxxxx
    请问鑫哥,这段开头有写As one pesticide replaces another为什么不是对应a new pesticide is developed?
  • wx_7695
    鑫哥,从哪里看出来这个masks 不是use呀,原文说了wear呀
  • haiyuqiao
    @鑫哥,这题the damage will continue 不应该对应前面的 the target species evolves resistance to it,然后As one pesticide replaces another,不应该是结束了time cycle 吗
  • wx_2065
    鑫哥,想知道E错在哪里?
  • wx_7695
    鑫哥,B选项 cannot extended to earlier geological periods. 原文说的意思是后来的进化无法估计吧
  • wx_2163
    B为什么不选
  • wx_7780
    鑫哥,这个哪里看不use了。BD是修饰错,C是无中生有,怎么能直接选出A?
  • 100
    看到第一句话,以为是中心句就选了A... 为什么不能选A呢
  • 100
    为什么选b?
  • gu33
    请问下 这里选D的原因是 因为 evolutionary approach 对应着 原文的 Rates of evolution 嘛? 这里我选了C。。不是很懂 插入句和 D的关系 求解答
  • 我是啦啦啦
    我是啦啦啦 去解答 去解答
    这个题A哪里错了?是因为主语不对吗?这个C比A多一步推理啊
  • haiyuqiao
    鑫哥,D选项里的19世纪出现了很多假设,原文中并没有提到啊
  • wx_7060
    为什么选a 呢。我觉得a是细节。F哪错了?
  • wx_1105
    我想问一下,这道题为什么不能选A呢?
  • wx_8122
    D为什么不选
  • wx_1655
    f选项哪里说了
  • chaulaw
    鑫哥,原文是below经济损害水平,D是一触发经济损害就用,这也对吗?
  • chaulaw
    interclan婚姻是对的吗?不是只在自己的family结婚扩大家族吗?
  • wx_6697
    鑫哥,这道题答案是不是错了,好多人选D 我也选的D求解答
  • wx_6697
    这道题应该是一道易错题,每个选项的都有,然而我选的A错了,求解
  • wx_6697
    鑫哥,这题的C是怎么得到的?B也没有找到啊?难道不是应该选B
  • wx_6697
    鑫哥,还有这个,好多人选A答案是不是错了
  • wx_6697
    求问D是从哪里得出来的,我选的B呀哎呀
  • wx_4185
    it is difficult to say how far they were intended to be portraits rather than generalized images 这句话怎么理解呢
  • 此楠楠
    请问下这个插入题怎么选的呢?
  • 此楠楠
    求鑫哥讲解下A选项。。。 Even though in error, Joly’s calculations clearly supported those geologists who insisted on an age for Earth far in excess of a few million years.