托福 新托福 30 - Role of Play in Development
题目
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
9..Look at the four squares [█] that indicate where the following sentence can be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?
With messages such as those, even dogs that are strangers to each other can be playing within a few minutes.
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Play is easier to define with examples than with concepts. In any case, in animals it consists of leaping, running, climbing, throwing, wrestling, and other movements, either along, with objects, or with other animals. Depending on the species, play may be primarily for social interaction, exercise, or exploration. One of the problems in providing a clear definition of play is that it involves the same behaviors that take place in other circumstance--dominance, predation, competition, and real fighting. Thus, whether play occurs or not depends on the intention of the animals, and the intentions are not always clear from behaviors alone.

Play appears to be a developmental characteristic of animals with fairly sophisticated nervous systems, mainly birds and mammals. Play has been studied most extensively in primates and canids (dogs). Exactly why animals play is still a matter debated in the research literature, and the reasons may not be the same for every species that plays. Determining the functions of play is difficult because the functions may be long-term, with beneficial effects not showing up until the animal's adulthood.

Play is not without considerable costs to the individual animal. Play is usually very active, involving movement in space and, at times, noisemaking. Therefore, it results in the loss of fuel or energy that might better be used for growth or for building up fat stores in a young animal. Another potential cost of this activity is greater exposure to predators since play is attention-getting behavior. Great activities also increase the risk of injury in slipping or falling.

The benefits of play must outweigh costs, or play would not have evolved, according to Darwin' s theory. Some of the potential benefits relate directly to the healthy development of the brain and nervous system. In one research study, two groups of young rats were raised under different conditions. One group developed in an "enriched" environment, which allowed the rats to interact with other rats, play with toys, and receive maze training. The other group lived in an "impoverished" environment in individual cages in a dimly lit room with little stimulation. At the end of the experiments, the results showed that the actual weight of the brains of the impoverished rats was less than that of those raised in the enriched environment (though they were fed the same diets). Other studies have shown that greater stimulation not only affects the size of the brain but also increase the number of connections between the nerve cells. Thus, active play may provide necessary stimulation to the growth of synaptic connections in the brain, especially the cerebellum, which is responsible for motor functioning and movements.

Play also stimulates the development of the muscle tissues themselves and may provide the opportunities to practice those movements needed for survival. Prey species, like young deer or goats, for example, typically play by performing sudden flight movements and turns, whereas predator species, such as cats, practice stalking, pouncing, and biting.

Play allows a young animal to explore its environment and practice skill in comparative safety since the surrounding adults generally do not expect the young to deal with threats or predators. Play can also provide practice in social behaviors needed for courtship and mating. Learning appropriate social behaviors is especially important for species that live in groups, like young monkeys that needed to learn to control selfishness and aggression and to understand the give-and-take involved in social groups. They need to learn how to be dominant and submissive because each monkey might have to play either role in the future. Most of these things are learned in the long developmental periods that primates have, during which they engage in countless play experiences with their peers.

There is a danger, of course, that play may be misinterpreted or not recognized as play by others, potentially leading to aggression. This is especially true when play consists of practicing normal aggressive or predator behaviors. Thus, many species have evolved clear signals to delineate playfulness. Dogs, for example, will wag their tails, get down their front legs, and stick their behinds in the air to indicate "what follows is just for play."

用例证来定义玩耍要比用概念简单得多。在任何情况下,动物间的玩耍都包括跳跃,奔跑,攀登,投掷,格斗和另外的一些动作,而玩耍的对象可能有其它物品或者动物。根据物种的不同,玩耍的目的主要包括社交,锻炼,或探索。定义“玩耍”的难点之一是,玩耍过程中常常包含一些与其它情况下相似的行为,例如统治,捕食,竞争和搏斗。因此,判断其是否玩耍,要根据动物的目的来确认,而常常通过行为本身很难分析其目的。 玩耍似乎是那些有着相对复杂的神经系统的动物,主要是鸟类和哺乳动物,的一个发育,发展的特征。玩耍的大量研究主要在灵长类和犬类中进行。动物到底为什么要玩耍仍然在文献中存在争议,并且每种物种玩耍的原因也不尽相同。确定玩耍的功能很难,因为它的功能是长期的,伴随着一些直到动物成年才会显现出来的有利影响。 玩耍对于动物个体并非没有一定的代价。玩耍通常是非常活跃的,包括一些动作,有时也会发出声音。所以,这些都会导致一些年幼的动物的本来可以用来生长或者储存脂肪的能量流失。另一个潜在的代价是玩耍增加了动物暴漏给天敌的几率,因为这些多动是吸引注意的行为。大量的运动也会增加摔倒滑倒导致受伤的危险。 根据达尔文理论,玩耍的好处一定超过其损失,不然玩耍就不会得以进化。其中一些潜在的好处就是直接关于动物的大脑和神经系统的健康发展。在一项研究中,两组小鼠被养在不同的环境中。第一组成长在一个比较“富裕”的环境中,这样的环境使其可以与其他老鼠接触,和玩具玩儿,并且接受迷宫训练。另一组生活在“穷困”的环境中,它们被养在独立笼子里,只有微弱的光照和极少的刺激。最后,结果表明生活在单一环境中的老鼠的大脑重量要比生活在复杂情况下的老鼠的大脑轻(即使它们被喂养的食物一样的)。另外一些研究表明,较大的刺激不仅会影响大脑的大小,而且也会增加神经细胞间连接的数量。因此,活跃的玩耍可以为大脑中的突触连接提供必要的刺激,特别是负责运动机能的小脑。 玩耍也会刺激肌肉组织的生长,并能提供练习生存技能的机会。被捕食者,比如小鹿或者山羊,其典型的玩耍动作就是突然快速跳跃和转弯,相反捕食者,比如猫科动物,则练习潜行追踪,猛扑和撕咬。 玩耍有助于幼年动物探索其生存环境,并且由于周围的成年动物一般不期望孩子去处理威胁和捕食者,所以它们可以在相对安全的环境中练习技能。玩耍也可以练习求爱和交配的社交行为。学习适当的社交行为特别重要,尤其是对于群居动物,比如猴子,它们需要学会控制自己的自私和攻击性,学着去懂得付出和收获的关系以融入群体。它们要学习怎么去统治和顺从因为每只猴子都会在将来扮演其中某个角色。大部分这类事情都在灵长类的长期的幼龄时期学习,期间它们有数不清的玩耍经验。 当然玩耍也有危险。玩耍可能会被别的动物误会,或者不被当做玩耍而潜在地造成攻击。这个情况尤其在扮演练习正常的侵略性或捕食行为过程中。因此,许多物种都有其明确的表明玩耍的信号。比如狗,它们用会摇尾巴,前腿趴下,撅着屁股来表示“以下行为都是逗你玩儿的!”

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最新提问
  • wx_6697
    觉得B C 意思一样,不知道选哪个
  • wx_5576
    这道题C为什么对,E为什么不对?
  • wx_5576
    B为什么不能选啊?
  • wx_6697
    TPO30 passage 2 Q5我选的 D,不明白为啥不对?
  • wx_6697
    鑫哥,TPO6passage3Q5 答案是给错了吗?好多人都选A
  • wx_6697
    这题也很容易选错选成了D
  • wx_6697
    这道题A为什么错了
  • 芊儿
    为什么这道题不选c??a中的variety不是应该对应文中的differentiating 吗??求解!
  • wx_1000
    这道题不选E是因为太细节了吗
  • 王金阁
    这个题为什么不选C啊。。。
  • 芊儿
    这道题的D选项不是和文中的better able to reproduce in open settings相对应么??
  • 风荨火
    有大佬解释一下这个为啥选D嘛?
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  • 芊儿
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  • wx_6697
    鑫哥,这道题D是从哪里看出来的
  • wx_6697
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  • wx_8861
    F选项的weather-related destruction在哪里体现了呢?原文最后一段的开头Among the costs里的costs是不是打错了?应该是coast?
  • wx_6697
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    这题为什么选C?
  • 小雨淅沥哗啦的下
    小雨淅沥哗啦的下 去解答 去解答
    B哪里错了
  • 小雨淅沥哗啦的下
    小雨淅沥哗啦的下 去解答 去解答
    B为啥不对
  • 李浩然
    B选项错误,是因为残缺么?
  • wx_100
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  • wx xxxxx
    请问鑫哥,这段开头有写As one pesticide replaces another为什么不是对应a new pesticide is developed?
  • wx_7695
    鑫哥,从哪里看出来这个masks 不是use呀,原文说了wear呀
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    @鑫哥,这题the damage will continue 不应该对应前面的 the target species evolves resistance to it,然后As one pesticide replaces another,不应该是结束了time cycle 吗
  • wx_2065
    鑫哥,想知道E错在哪里?
  • wx_7695
    鑫哥,B选项 cannot extended to earlier geological periods. 原文说的意思是后来的进化无法估计吧
  • wx_2163
    B为什么不选
  • wx_7780
    鑫哥,这个哪里看不use了。BD是修饰错,C是无中生有,怎么能直接选出A?
  • 100
    看到第一句话,以为是中心句就选了A... 为什么不能选A呢
  • 100
    为什么选b?
  • gu33
    请问下 这里选D的原因是 因为 evolutionary approach 对应着 原文的 Rates of evolution 嘛? 这里我选了C。。不是很懂 插入句和 D的关系 求解答
  • 我是啦啦啦
    我是啦啦啦 去解答 去解答
    这个题A哪里错了?是因为主语不对吗?这个C比A多一步推理啊
  • haiyuqiao
    鑫哥,D选项里的19世纪出现了很多假设,原文中并没有提到啊
  • wx_7060
    为什么选a 呢。我觉得a是细节。F哪错了?
  • wx_1105
    我想问一下,这道题为什么不能选A呢?
  • wx_8122
    D为什么不选
  • wx_1655
    f选项哪里说了
  • chaulaw
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  • chaulaw
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  • wx_6697
    鑫哥,这道题答案是不是错了,好多人选D 我也选的D求解答
  • wx_6697
    这道题应该是一道易错题,每个选项的都有,然而我选的A错了,求解
  • wx_6697
    鑫哥,这题的C是怎么得到的?B也没有找到啊?难道不是应该选B
  • wx_6697
    鑫哥,还有这个,好多人选A答案是不是错了
  • wx_6697
    求问D是从哪里得出来的,我选的B呀哎呀
  • wx_4185
    it is difficult to say how far they were intended to be portraits rather than generalized images 这句话怎么理解呢
  • 此楠楠
    请问下这个插入题怎么选的呢?
  • 此楠楠
    求鑫哥讲解下A选项。。。 Even though in error, Joly’s calculations clearly supported those geologists who insisted on an age for Earth far in excess of a few million years.